Recent advances in ancient DNA analysis have transformed our understanding of kinship and underlying social structures in past populations. The application of next-generation sequencing technologies has enabled researchers to reconstruct the genetic makeup of ancient individuals with unprecedented precision, providing new insights into lineage, ancestry, and social organization. Ancient DNA evidence has revealed a wide range of kinship systems, including patrilineal and matrilineal descent, consanguineous marriages, female exogamy, and family-based burial practices. These findings underscore the complexity of human social relationships and the dynamic interactions between genetic inheritance, cultural traditions, and environmental factors in ancient societies. By examining case studies across different geographic and temporal contexts, this review highlights the transformative potential of ancient DNA in deciphering past human relationships. However, it also addresses key ethical concerns, including the importance of respecting cultural sensitivities and avoiding overly deterministic interpretations of genetic data. The integration of genetic evidence with archaeological and anthropological perspectives enables a more comprehensive reconstruction of ancient social systems, moving beyond simplistic genetic determinism to appreciate the intricate interconnections between biology, culture, and identity.
The driving forces behind language variation and change have long been a subject of debate. One prominent approach takes a functionalist perspective and posits that the need for efficient communication shapes lexical and grammatical patterns. This paper reviews five recent studies that offer further support for the plausibility of the communicative efficiency principle while also providing new insights into other factors that contribute to efficient linguistic structures. The key findings from these studies can be summarized as follows: (1) the principle of communicative efficiency offers plausible explanations for both lexical and grammatical phenomena, addressing both synchronic variations and diachronic changes in language evolution; (2) linguistic systems achieve efficiency through multiple mechanisms such as creation bias and selective pressures favoring efficient communication; (3) in addition to communicative efficiency, language evolution is also shaped by language history, with existing structures influencing subsequent ones. By synthesizing these studies, this paper underscores the efficiency account as a plausible and inclusive explanatory framework. It also stresses the need to rigorously delineate the role of communicative efficiency in language evolution, cautioning against automatically conflating the presence of efficient structures with intentional optimization for communicative goals.
Human behavioral ecology is an evolutionary framework that attempts to understand how adaptive human behavior maps on to variation in social, cultural, and ecological environments. It emerged as a coherent framework in the United States and the U.K. in the 1980s and has flourished as an explanatory framework ever since. The concentration of HBE scholarship in English-speaking countries has led to missed opportunities to engage other partners in testing and expanding human behavioral ecological models of human behavioral and life history variation. In this review, we provide a brief review of human behavioral ecology and describe opportunities for related scholarship in the Chinese context. We introduce human behavioral ecology holistically, including its history, methodological frameworks, pet topics, and recent integration with related fields, with a special emphasis on its recent integration with Chinese social, archaeological, and life sciences scholarship. We address potential criticisms of human behavioral ecology and how to ensure a robust and careful application of human behavioral ecology principles in the study of human behavior in China, past and present. We conclude with excitement as the remarkable variation in the Chinese behavioral landscape offers unparalleled opportunities for innovative and integrative studies.
The ancient Okunev culture in South Siberia is renowned for its mysterious artistic and cultural legacy and belief system. Many later, Eurasian steppe peoples are thought to have inherited elements of the Okunev culture, but its origins and evolution remain unclear. Previous research of ancient DNA (aDNA) indicated that the primary paternal lineage of the ancient Okunev people was Q-L330-YP761. In this study, we sequenced 25 modern samples from this haplogroup and analyzed them alongside 26 ancient samples and 10 modern samples from public sources. The updated, high-resolution phylogenetic tree shows paternal lineage Q-L330-YP761 expanded significantly during the Okunev culture. Its downstream subclade Y145421 was the main paternal type of the Chandman culture. Phylogeographic analysis indicates that Q-L330-YP761 largely integrated into the Xiongnu, Tiele, and Han Chinese populations after the Okunev culture. Many downstream branches of Q-L330-YP761 also migrated westward to Central Asia and Europe. In summary, Q-L330-YP761 is considered one of the genetic lineages that have migrated across the Eurasian steppe since the Bronze Age.
This study investigates the changing role of women in digital da’wah and the digital transformation of Majelis Taklim (Islamic study groups) in Indonesia. As digital platforms like YouTube, Instagram, WhatsApp, Telegram, and TikTok become more widely used, this study explores how women negotiate power, shape religious discourse, and interact with audiences online. The study employs a qualitative approach using digital ethnography and critical discourse analysis (CDA) to examine the interactions and narratives shaping women’s roles in digital da’wah. Data were collected through digital observations, in-depth interviews with female preachers (ustazah), moderators, and active participants, and content analysis of Majelis Taklim sessions on social media. The study applies Fairclough’s CDA to analyze power relations within religious discourse and Van Dijk’s Critical Discourse Studies (CDS) to examine how digital da’wah reconstructs female religious authority. The results reveal a shift in women’s roles from passive participants to active producers of religious discourse. While digitalization provides broader access and participation opportunities, female preachers still face challenges in establishing religious authority, particularly in male-dominated Islamic discourses. The study finds that key themes in women-led da’wah include Islamic parenting, hijrah (religious transformation), Islamic economy, and women’s roles in Islam. Digital platforms do provide female scholars more prominence, but they also perpetuate patriarchal interpretations of religious norms. By combining digital ethnography, critical discourse analysis, and religious studies, this work adds to the conversation on Islam, gender, and digital religious practices. It shows how digital media influences women’s involvement in da’wah by presenting opportunities and limitations. Unlike other studies concentrating on male religious authority in digital da’wah, this research offers a thorough, empirical, and theoretical examination of how women manage religious influence and legitimacy online. The findings have implications for developing inclusive, digital-based Islamic education and policymaking on religious discourse in the digital era.
Using examples from indigenous art in Brazil, this paper demonstrates that these works contain “hidden mathematics” (such as symmetry, striped ornaments, rows, etc.), which challenges the traditional notion of “primitive art”.
The article examines how smartphones and social media are transforming human interactions, challenging traditional concepts of friendship, intimacy, and belonging. Phenomena such as “phubbing” and constant connectivity are explored, highlighting the negative impacts of hyperconnectivity on the quality of face-to-face interactions and emotional well-being. While these technologies expand the reach of connections, they often lead to more superficial relationships, altering family, educational, and professional dynamics. Anthropological analysis is emphasized as essential for understanding these changes, revealing how digital practices vary across different cultural and social contexts. Ethnographic studies and innovative methodologies are suggested to investigate how digital technologies reshape identities, communities, and social hierarchies. The importance of an interdisciplinary approach, combining anthropology, psychology, and data science, is underscored to address the emerging challenges of the digital era and foster more authentic and healthy human relationships.
The emergence of artificial intelligence (AI) in the creative arts has ignited a global discourse on the intersection of technology, human creativity, and artistic expression. This paper examines the rise of “AI artists” within the broader context of neuropsychology, the metacrisis, and theories of art and creativity. Drawing on Ian McGilchrist’s hemispheric theory, it explores how AI, often associated with left-hemisphere analytical dominance, can paradoxically contribute to right-hemisphere creative processes. The study evaluates the role of AI in expanding artistic boundaries, democratizing creative expression, and redefining authorship, while addressing concerns about originality, cultural significance, and the potential devaluation of human-made art. Through an anthropological and philosophical lens, the paper argues that AI does not replace human creativity but rather augments it, offering novel tools for artistic exploration. By integrating insights from cognitive science, aesthetics, and digital humanities, this article positions AI as a collaborator in artistic evolution rather than a competitor. Ultimately, there is an assertion that the human capacity for meaning-making and emotional resonance remains irreplaceable, ensuring that human creativity persists and thrives alongside AI-generated art.
The Shennong’s Herbal Canon lays the foundation for the basic theory of herbal combination in traditional Chinese medicine (TCM). However, after the Tang dynasty, the text of this book was nearly entirely lost, with only a short preface and a catalogue of 365 herbs remaining. In Interpretation of Shennong’s Herb Canon and Catalogue of Herbal Foods, molecular anthropologist Hui Li systematically elaborated on the philosophical basis and practical application by starting from the TCM perspective and integrating multi-disciplinary scientific evidence. This book provides scholars with numerous empirical and logically-based scientific hypotheses and offers insights for daily health maintenance.
We have recently found that a megalithic basaltic rock lunisolar calendar in Lanzarote, Canary Islands (“Quesera or Cheeseboard” of Zonzamas) has almost a twin monument in Jerusalem (Al Quds in Arab). These two unique monuments are on the West and East sides of the Sahara Desert and support the hypothesis of a common “Green” Saharan culture and a later migration of people towards the Atlantic, Mediterranean, Middle East and other areas when desiccation started after 10,000 years BC, thus spreading culture and genes. Traces of this culture can still be found in Iberian rock inscriptions on the Canary Islands and in the Sahara Desert, particularly at Tim-Missaou in Algeria.This is concordant with Usko-Mediterranean languages (Basque and Berber are related and also with Iberian and Etruscan), genetics and other common anthropological traits. In this paper, we analyse the Al Quds-Jerusalem megalithic monument as representing a solar calendar of Egyptian-type (365 days in 1 year) and show how it could be identical to the Lanzarote megalithic calendar (“Quesera or Cheeseboard” of Zonzamas). Both monuments,each crest/channel, are coincidental in each solar month assignment in both Lanzarote and Jerusalem rock calendars representation. Jerusalem’s megalithic calendar was built at least 900 years BC, when it fell out of use. Therefore, it can be assumed that the Lanzarote megalithic calendar was constructed around a similar time, meaning an undetermined period over 2800 years ago.
Archaic and modern humans differ in a range of craniodental features. From a taxonomic and phylogenetic perspective, it is essential to distinguish between species accurately through detailed morphological characterizations. This study analyzes the size and shape variation of the enamel-dentine junction (EDJ) of upper molars from two hominin species, early Neanderthals from Krapina (N = 13) and mid-Holocene European modern humans (N = 14), to assess the extent of their endostructural morphological differentiation. The EDJ was obtained through microtomographic scans of each molar using segmentation procedures. Three-dimensional landmarks semilandmarks and 3D geometric morphometric methods, were employed to investigate EDJ size and shape variation through univariate (t-test), multivariate exploratory, and classification methods (PCA and LDA). The results indicate that the shape of the EDJ and cervix of M2 differentiates Krapina Neanderthals from mid-Holocene European modern humans with a high degree of accuracy (~85%). Furthermore, EDJ size and dental nonmetric traits expressed in this structure provide additional information that is useful for distinguishing between the two species. Compared to modern humans, Krapina Neanderthals exhibit reduced dental diversity. From an endostructural perspective, this study provides additional insights into early Neanderthals’ morphological diversification relative to modern humans, which is valuable for studying middle and late Pleistocene hominin evolution.
In recent years, the expansive pastoralist landscapes in southern Kenya have undergone rapid transformation, the key being a change in the land-tenure system from communal to individual ownership. However, little is known about the complexities influencing these changes and how the changes impact the local people. This study employed qualitative inductive approaches and ethnographic methods, such as participant observation and in-depth interviews. It examined how local and international formal and informal institutions have impacted land tenure changes among the Maa pastoralists living near Chyulu and Tsavo-West national parks. Despite the expected benefits of individual land ownership, the changes have not addressed significant social barriers. These include norms and power structures that disadvantage the poor in the community, as well as women and youth within households. People with higher levels of poverty and fewer or no political connections are marginalized during land adjudication at the community level. At the same time, traditions and customs deny women and youth entitlement to property at the household level. Such groups thus experience land privatisation differently. This article argues that expropriation and unequal abilities to control, access and benefit from land profoundly impact social differentiation among pastoralists. Further, the article illuminates a more-than-human achievement, with wildlife shaping people’s lives through conservation-induced land expropriation, and a more-than-human vulnerability that livestock and wildlife face in the wake of land fragmentation and fencing that restrict their free movement. The article contributes to more significant debates on pastoralist land tenure, property relations, ongoing changes in land control processes, and more-than-human achievements and vulnerabilities.
The article analyzes the main provisions of constructive anthropology developed in Russian empirio-criticism in the first quarter of the 20th century. The justification of non-metaphysical philosophy, which developed the “problematic” approach to cognition, made the new understanding of man possible. From this point of view, the essence of man is not a metaphysical constant, but is modeled on the basis of an appropriate organization of experience; the essence of man is determined by his existence and is constantly changing; the essence of man can be consciously adapted by directing his development and giving him the necessary characteristics; man as an essence is always man’s project, or scientific and philosophical concept; only by understanding man as a dynamic project can we justify free will and man’s capacity for creation. The project of constructive anthropology is fundamentally different from the philosophical anthropology developed in Germany in the 20th century by Max Scheler and Helmuth Plessner, since the latter is essentially an attempt to preserve the traditional metaphysical interpretation of man.
Throughout our entire evolutionary history, the physical environment has played a significant role in shaping humans’ subsistence adaptations. As early humans began to colonise novel biomes and construct ecological niches, their behavioural flexibility appeared as an unquestionable fact. During the Late Pleistocene-Holocene transition, the shift from foraging to farming radically altered ecosystem services, resulting in increased exposure to zoonotic pathogens and the emergence of structural inequalities that pervade our current human condition in the Anthropocene epoch. The article seeks to use an anthropological biosocial analysis to explore the diverse evolutionary paths humans have taken, which in turn shape their relationships with the natural world. Given the enigmatic nature of human behavior, it is essential to examine it holistically to understand how different subsistence patterns (e.g., intensive agriculture, foraging, and horticulture) have influenced resilience and adaptation to environmental challenges.
For more than 80 years, Spain has had a human rights problem. Since the 18th of July 1936, when military personnel and fascists staged a coup d’état against the democratic government of the Second Republic, thousands of victims remain missing. We will examine how the victims have been treated by the State and how civil society has led the process of recovering democratic memory. We will focus on its impact in the Bierzo region, in the northwest of the Iberian Peninsula, and its importance in this process. We will also look at how scientific efforts continue to search for missing persons. History, archaeology, physical anthropology, and genetics join forces to repair the victims of the Spanish Civil War and Franco’s dictatorship.
The title of this paper poses a paradoxical question, relating philosophy and humor, and tries to be humorous itself with the use of the verb “kill”. Against a more common, sometimes even academical, view of philosophy as a tremendously serious, deep, and complex corpus of knowledge—all theory and no praxis—the article challenges this view and will try to explain why humor, when associated with philosophy, can accelerate the understanding of a concept, and reveal unexpected spaces for reflection while donating moments of lightness and entertainment. In this perspective, humor reveals itself as a fundamental anthropological experience strongly connected to human freedom. I am aware that there are many different types of humor—irony, joke, slapstick, double-entendre, pun, deadpan-dry humor, etc., and also that the definition of “sense of humor” may be highly subjective, often related to the cultural profile of the person, and their geographical and historical contexts: what I consider funny, can be neutral or even offensive for another person. Nevertheless, among hundreds of interpretations, I will consider those which are more consistent with the scope of this paper. Moreover, if we think about the contemporary movement called philosophical counseling as a praxis that aims to help people in trouble and despair to see human problems from a wider and more rational Weltanschauung (view of the world), humor can become a useful tool to re-discover the frolicsome child inside ourselves: while playing with contrasts, metaphors, and metonymies, it induces a sudden, positive change of perspective. A process that is valid for both the counselor and the counselee, the self and the other: humor can provoke in the counselor a new and fresh way to understand the counselee’s difficulty; for the client, it can be a moment of tension release, or the start of a different way to address and approach life’s problems, or, even more, the beginning of a creative, transformative path.
Teeth are an important object of studies in many scientific disciplines and, among various study techniques, measurements have one of the most promising prospects for further improvements supported by progress in computer sciences, imaging and image processing. Our recent work on automated odontometric algorithms for premolars and molars has gradually come to develop similar methods for another group of teeth—incisors. Using 3D reconstructions of teeth obtained through micro-focus tomographic scanning, we propose landmarks, which correspond to main morphological features of incisors and enable their formal description. In this article we present an orientation and measurement technique, based on an interpretation of incisor morphology, as a system which is able to perform in a fully automated mode. Since the primary objective of the current paper is to introduce methodological improvements, data on measurements and their results are shown at the most basic level.
Species was one of the most controversial concepts in biological science. Not even the “New Systematics” of the 1930s and 1940s succeeded in bringing complete clarity to the issue. During the first half of the twentieth century the conceptualization of species was challenged by paleontology, a then-emerging discipline, but an ancient essentialist conception resisted, whereby each species is characterized by its own immutable essence (eidos). This simplification was transferred to physical anthropology in the study of human populations, with further cultural and political outcomes. For example: the meaning of species developed a series of biopolitical and legal implications regarding the construction of a society preserved from foreign dangerous bodies. From this perspective, the racial policy of the Third Reich established that the German national community was to be based on belonging to a same species (Art), from which Jewish population was excluded, considering it an alien species (Artfremd) and therefore incompatible. The concept of species, defined from an essentialist perspective, was in fact considered more differentiating and selective than that of “race”. Consequently, foreignness to the human species became a more radical distinguishing factor than racial classification. The article, with a focus on German academia, aims to reconstruct the debate in paleoanthropology during interwar period.
Authors offer for a discussion the materials from studies of archaic culture elements that include body modifications in ethnic groups in the context of population genetic data from native peoples of the Far North. The authors consider materials from the territory of ancient Beringia which include a part of Chukotka and Kamchatka in Russia, Alaska in the USA and several island groups in between. The working hypothesis of the study involves the identification of common and specific features of body modifications in ethnic groups having similar population genesis. This allows to clarify the specifics of the regional contacts. Body modifications (tattoos, piercings, etc.) are considered as a way of a person’s self-identification and a form of his group membership (in this case—ethnic group). The study used ethnographic, archaeological, paleo-history, folklore materials and up-to-date data that include genetic research of contemporary ethnic groups inhabiting the territory of ancient Beringia and maintaining their traditional way of life. The methodology base of the research is based on formalized approach and cross-cultural analysis evidence of the similarity/difference of the population in combination with the method of comparative analysis of DNA data and information about their genetic structure.
This paper offers a review of bioarchaeological research on human mobility during the Hellenistic and Roman period in the Central and Eastern Mediterranean. This period was marked by significant connectivity amidst the establishment of major political entities. The paper begins with an overview of bioarchaeological methods used to study past mobility, including biodistance, isotopic and ancient DNA analyses. It then examines published studies that have utilized these methods to explore mobility during the Hellenistic and Roman periods. The paper concludes by critically assessing the current research limitations and proposing directions for future studies. These suggestions emphasize the importance of conducting additional research to investigate human mobility in neglected areas, as well as at different temporal and spatial scales. Integrating mobility data with other sources of evidence, such as historical accounts, paleoenvironmental data and osteobiographic information is another important future direction of research. Finally, relevant research should be more theoretically informed and its contemporary implications should be effectively communicated within and beyond the academic community. An enhancement of our understanding of the nature and impact of mobility is crucial in today’s society, where misconceptions linking immigration to the decline of the Roman Empire can perpetuate biases against contemporary mobility.
Background. Medallic art is used to promote the subject matter which is important for the issuer. Also fighting arts and martial traditions are used here as icons in the coins and medals. Problem. What is the purpose of occasional coins, medals or badges relative to their contents or symbolism, the metal used or the volume of the release? Does an issuer aim at promotion or rather at recognition and at maintaining the uniqueness? Material and Method. The study uses a regression method, comparative analysis and literature review. Approximately one hundred examples are discussed. Statistical analyses took into account N = 64 of contemporary coins (47) and medals (17), representing the relevant thematic groups. Pearson C coefficient was calculated for the factor of popularity FA and a number of variables. Results. It has been found that medals are issued in small volumes and are significantly varied in terms of the subject matter (uniqueness and originality). Some organisations seek to ensure the exceptional status of medal-type award which is granted based on strictly defined rules. Conclusions. Presentations of martial arts on coins, medals and badges make reference to the related symbolism or to the issuer’s national traditions. Large volume releases are mainly done for promotional purposes. On the other hand medals issued in small numbers are meant to be unique—they find their way to a select group of people deserving special recognition.
This paper introduces the AI “next to normal”-thesis, suggesting that as Artificial Intelligence becomes more ingrained in our daily lives, it will transition from a sensationalized entity to a regular tool. However, this normalization has psychosocial implications, particularly when it comes to AI safety concerns. The “next to normal”-thesis proposes that AI will soon be perceived as a standard component of our technological interactions, with its sensationalized nature diminishing over time. As AI’s integration becomes more seamless, many users may not even recognize their interactions with AI systems. The paper delves into the psychology of AI safety concerns, discussing the “Mere Exposure Effect” and the “Black Box Effect”. While the former suggests that increased exposure to AI leads to a more positive perception, the latter highlights the unease stemming from not fully understanding its capabilities. These effects can be seen as two opposing forces shaping the public’s perception of the technology. The central claim of the thesis is that as AI progresses to become normal, human psychology will evolve alongside with it and safety concerns will diminish, which may have practical consequences. The paper concludes by discussing the implications of the “next to normal”-thesis and offers recommendations for the industry and policymakers, emphasizing the need for increased transparency, continuous education, robust regulation, and empirical research. The future of AI is envisioned as one that is seamlessly integrated into society, yet it is imperative to address the associated safety concerns proactively and not take the normalization effects take ahold of it.
The dominant paradigm regarding human evolution since the split with Pan considers australopithecines as hominins, i.e., the closest relatives and/or direct ancestors of Homo. Historically, this paradigm started from the assumption that the Homo/Pan/Gorilla last common ancestor was a knuckle-walking ape that evolved into the fully upright (orthograde), obligate bipedal genus Homo, whereas Pan and Gorilla remained knuckle-walkers. Obligate terrestrial upright bipedalism, unique for our species, is an odd locomotor behaviour for a primate. Therefore, it had become generally accepted that a cooler and drier African climate had caused deforestation, which had forced our ancestors to develop upright bipedalism as an adaptation to living on open grassland savannah. This view, already held by Lamarck and Darwin, appeared most parsimonious in the almost complete absence of fossils. The discovery in the 20th century of australopithecine fossils, bipedal apes with small brains, in open country in southern and eastern Africa corroborated the savannah paradigm. Therefore, australopithecines are considered hominins. However, it is now recognized that most australopithecines instead lived in a mosaic of forests, grasslands and wetlands, and better knowledge of their fossils clearly indicates that they possessed several climbing adaptations. Moreover, none of the extinct ape species older than Australopithecus and Paranthropus for which postcranial remains have been described (e.g., Morotopithecus, Sahelanthropus, Orrorin, Ardipithecus) were knuckle-walking. On the other hand, upright posture/gait is already present to different degrees even in Miocene apes. Moreover, the notion that hominoid orthogrady is a primitive characteristic is corroborated by the growing consensus that knuckle-walking is not a primitive trait but has evolved in parallel, independently in both Pan and Gorilla. Consequently, it is possible that australopithecines are not transitional between a semi-erect ancestor and upright bipedal humans, but to the contrary, are intermediate between a more upright ancestor and extant semi-erect African apes. In summary, hypotheses that attempt to explain how a semi-erect Homo/Pan last common ancestor transitioned into the bipedal australopithecines as an adaptation to life on the savannah appear to be ill-conceived and moreover seem to have been superfluous from the very start. We review the numerous similarities between australopithecines and extant African apes, suggesting that they are possibly not hominins and therefore not our direct ancestors. We suggest that we may have been barking up the wrong ancestral tree, for almost a century.
The earliest writing in China is the oracle bone inscriptions of the Shang Dynasty, which records early Chinese, also known as oracle bone Chinese, which are all monosyllabic-words (1300 BC). In the Bronze Inscriptions of the Western Zhou Dynasty and later handed down documents, doublets appear (beginning in 1046 BC). At present, the philological academy believes that the doublets recorded with two Chinese single-characters come from reduplication of two single-character symbols, but there is no complete argument and reliable evidence. This article, by using the opposite method of argument, reversely assumes that the single-characters (monosyllabic words) come from doublets and tries to demonstrate it. The article proves the truth of the origin of doublets based on the word distribution and semantic correspondence between doublets and single-characters in “the Book of Poetry”, that is, doublets are the source and single-characters are flows. Among them, 39.66% of the doublets have no corresponding single-characters, and they are the characters created to record doublets; 41.92% of the meanings of doublets have nothing to do with the meanings of single-characters, which proves that the doublets does not come from the combination of single-characters; 12.46% of the meanings of doublets are interpreted as the meanings of single-characters, which are the subjective errors of later generations of interpreters; the remaining 5.66% are only associated with proclitics and enclitics rather than single-characters. Finally, the article proposes that doublets originate from a unique mechanism of expressive morphology, which is a new type of etymological theory outside the morphological grammar system, and can create various polysyllabic ideophones, including the onomatopoeia or mimetic words. The article proves that a language begins with the creation of words. In the prehistoric period before the oracle bone inscriptions, Chinese ancestors had invented a large number of distinctive doublets (AA), couplets (AB) and other polysyllabic words (xA, or ABB, ABA’B), or ideophones. Due to the difficulty of writing, the doublets were hidden in spoken language for hundreds of years. It was not until the time of “Book of Poetry” and “Book of History” in the bronze inscriptions of the Western Zhou Dynasty that it entered the history and has continued to this day. Doublets are the earliest Chinese words and the beginning of Chinese civilization.
The Han Chinese (HAN) represent the world’s largest ethnic group, and their genetic structure has been the focus of numerous studies. Yet previous studies failed to draw out finer population stratification of patrilineal HAN, due to limitations in sample size and genetic marker density. This essay employs a Y-haplogroup frequency dataset from virtually whole China aiming to draw out a detailed genetic structure of the patrilineal HAN. We provide an overview of the Y chromosome haplogroup distributions, and find that the patrilineal HAN can be divided into five geographic subgroups. Analysis of Molecular Variance (AMOVA) provided further support for the five-substructure model. By comparing patrilineal and matrilineal descent, we revealed stronger geographical aggregation for patrilineal HAN. Moreover, populations with patrilineal descent showed lower levels of haplogroup diversity (HD) compared to those with matrilineal descent, suggesting potential population bottleneck of patrilineal HAN. The larger HD among northern patrilines verified historical migration of HAN from north to south, which validated by neighbor joining tree (NJ-tree). Overall, we speculate the southward migration routes for Han Chinese, and the HAN south of the Nanling Mountains may have entered via the middle reaches of the Yangtze River, rather than via eastern coastal provinces.
Chinese people believe that they are descendants of the prehistory Emperors Yan and Huang, while Yan (hot/red) and Huang (yellow) are the colors of the sun and earth. In the Dahecun style of Yangshao Culture archaeological culture of the legendary Yan and Huang’s period, the patterns of the sun and earth were frequently painted on the religious potteries, implying that the paired symbols might refer to the two emperors. However, the same paired pattern appeared in Shangshan Culture much earlier than Yangshao, indicating that the worship of Sun-Earth might have a quite long history prior to the two emperors. The pattern was inherited in the populations of China till today. The Jade Bi-Cong group of late Neolithic and early Bronze Age China also showed the same meanings and shapes. We found that the Sun-Earth pattern was quite common on the traditional brocade belts woven in the countryside around Shanghai. The origin of the sun shape was easy to understand, while that of the earth shape, a cross with or without an outline square, was hard to trace. Recent archaeological discovery in Shangshan Culture of a kind of yellow pyramid stone provided a new clue to the origin of earth symbol.
Inscribed symbols of Neolithic Age were sometimes suspected to be initial writing prior to developed writing system. The earliest developed writing system in China was Oracle-bone inscriptions (OBIs) of Bronze Age and researchers have long sought its predecessor. Here, we reported that two continuous symbols on a stone ax of Neolithic Liangzhu culture found their identical duplicates in a unique writing system on brocade belts woven by present women in Shanghai suburb. Women in this group duplicated the hereditary text for weddings only once each generation in the past, and they can still interpret these two characters, implying that the two identical Liangzhu symbols may have the similar meanings. The meanings and patterns are both similar to those in OBIs, suggesting that Liangzhu symbols might be one of the predecessors of OBIs. Integrating philology, genetics, linguistics, and folklore, we discussed that special small population may inherit both the genetic structure and convert culture for extremely long time, such as this population in southern Shanghai.
