Microsporidia are a group of obligate intracellular fungal pathogens with extremely wide host ranges. Among these, zoonotic microsporidia such as Encephalitozoon hellem, Encephalitozoon cuniculi, and Enterocytozoon bieneusi can infect humans as well as other animals, causing recurrent diarrhea, hepatitis, and even death in immune-compromised individuals. The abilities of zoonotic microsporidia to regulate their hosts are essential to their survival and thriving within hosts. The manipulations of zoonotic microsporidia on hosts are employed in multiple ways, including metabolic modulation, immune suppression, signaling pathway regulations, and epigenetic modification. This review focuses on pathogen-host interactions between zoonotic microsporidia and their hosts, and compares their regulatory characteristics with those of typical fungal pathogens such as Candida albicans. In summary, unraveling the regulatory strategies of zoonotic microsporidia not only deepens our understanding of microsporidia pathogenesis but also provides potential targets for therapeutic intervention against these emerging pathogens. Comparative studies with typical fungal pathogens further highlight the unique and sophisticated host-manipulating mechanisms evolved by microsporidia from the fungal kingdom.
Blueberries (Vaccinium corymbosum L.), valued for their nutritional benefits and economic significance, have become Peru’s leading agro-export crop. However, intensive cultivation can lead to phytosanitary problems if not addressed promptly, posing a serious threat to blueberry production. This study aimed to isolate and identify the causal agent of leaf spot symptoms initially observed in blueberries cultivated in Peru, marking the first formal documentation of its presence in the country. In 2022, leaf spot symptoms were recorded on V. corymbosum cv. Biloxi, in the north of Lima, Peru. Field observations revealed necrotic, sunken spots on leaves and fruits, with 4.84% of leaves diseased and 1.28% of fruits affected. Pathogen isolation and microscopic studies identified Alternaria alternata as the primary causal agent, which was confirmed by genome sequencing using Oxford Nanopore Technology. Pathogenicity tests demonstrated the fungus’ ability to reproduce symptoms identical to those observed in the field, fulfilling Koch’s postulates. Under experimental conditions, disease severity increased over time, with the affected leaf area ranging from 9.35% to 25.61% between 7 and 14 days post-inoculation. This study establishes A. alternata as a pathogen of blueberries in Peru and provides essential insights for future research and strategies to mitigate its impact on the industry.
Denture mycofilms (DMs) are complex, structured microbial communities that develop on removable dental prostheses and shape the oral microbiota of denture wearers. Up to three-quarters of individuals wearing removable dentures may develop denture stomatitis (DS), a highly prevalent inflammatory condition of the oral mucosa. Candida species are detected in approximately 70–80% of DS cases, supporting the concept of DS as a denture-associated oral candidiasis. The denture “mycofilm” is a polymicrobial network—dominated by bacterial and fungal taxa—embedded in an extracellular matrix. In the absence of effective denture hygiene, prostheses constitute a reservoir of microorganisms and may promote chronic or latent infection, particularly in vulnerable patients. Metagenomic studies of denture-associated biofilms in DS reveal a multi-kingdom community with strong bacterial–fungal interrelationships. Reported eukaryotic genera include Candida (including Nakaseomyces/Candida glabrata), Saccharomyces, and Malassezia, among others. Because DMs are located at the interface between an abiotic surface (the denture) and a biotic surface (the mucosa), they are exposed to repeated compressive and shear forces during mastication. Their viscoelastic properties, together with saliva-mediated viscosity, facilitate spreading, mechanical resilience, and persistence. Despite mechanical and chemical cleaning procedures, denture mycofilms may persist due to their architecture, composition, and adaptive mechanical behavior. These properties should be considered when designing preventive and therapeutic strategies for denture stomatitis, while accounting for patient-related systemic risk factors.
