Preparation of CdS-BaZrO₃ Heterojunction for Enhanced Photocatalytic Water-Splitting Hydrogen Production

The pollution of the environment has worsened in recent decades due to the widespread usage of fossil fuels. It is consequently imperative to take advantage of clean, efficient, and sustainable options [1,2,3]. Producing hydrogen from water splitting using photocatalysis is a promising method of converting and using alternative energy [4,5]. Recently, perovskite materials have attracted considerable interest in the field of photocatalysis because of their remarkable stability, extensive crystal chemistry, and exceptional catalytic activity [5,6,7,8,9]. Among them, BaZrO₃ (BZO₃) possesses exceptional chemical and optical stability with a perovskite-oxide cubic structure, and its valence and conduction band edges are optimally matched with the redox potential of water, rendering it exceptionally well-suited for the process of photocatalytic hydrogen evolution [10,11,12]. However, the wide bandgap and rapid recombination of photogenerated charge carriers in BZO₃ limit its efficiency for photocatalytic water-splitting hydrogen evolution.

Some studies have shown that doping metal ions onto BZO₃ can inhibit the recombination of photogenerated charge carriers [13,14,15,16,17]. For example, Zhang et al. prepared Ce⁴⁺-doped BZO₃ using the hydrothermal method [9]. Khan et al. synthesized a Ta-doped BZO₃ photocatalyst by the calcination method [10]. These photocatalysts improved the utilization of light, and they also demonstrated highly efficient photocatalytic water-splitting hydrogen evolution. However, it is important to note that doping can also introduce additional recombination centers, which can weaken the beneficial effects of doping. In addition, the process of optimizing doping content typically requires extensive experiments, which can be burdensome in terms of both time and energy consumption [18]. Recently, heterojunction construction has been widely implemented in the field of photocatalysis [19,20,21,22]. Combining BZO₃ with narrow band-gap semiconductors to construct heterojunctions will be an effective strategy for resolving the problem. As a result, the nanoscale interfacial contact facilitates the separation and movement of charges, decreases recombination, and ultimately results in improved photocatalytic water-splitting hydrogen production efficiency [23,24].

In this context, cadmium sulfide (CdS) is a highly suitable alternative due to its good optical properties and narrow band-gap of approximately 2.4 eV [25]. It is an abundant, cost-effective, and easy-to-prepare material [26]. In addition, CdS can absorb light in the visible range, making it suitable for various photocatalytic applications [27]. In recent studies, CdS has been effectively employed in the construction of heterojunctions with semiconductors, including Cs_0.68Ti_1.83O₄ [28], TiO₂ [29], SrTiO₃ [30], and other materials for photocatalytic water-splitting hydrogen production processes [31,32]. However, after reviewing the existing literature, it has been determined that there are no previous reports on the coupling of BZO₃ with CdS for a photocatalytic water-splitting hydrogen evolution reaction under light radiation.

Herein, the CdS-BZO₃ heterostructure composites were successfully prepared via a simple chemical-bath deposition method, in which CdS is deposited on the surface of BZO₃, resulting in the formation of a heterojunction. The as-prepared heterojunctions not only facilitate the separation and transportation of photogenerated charges but also maintain the high redox-oxidation ability of the photocatalysts. Thus, CdS-BZO₃ heterojunctions exhibit improved photocatalytic water-splitting hydrogen production performance, even without the addition of a noble-metal co-catalyst. Out of all the CdS content, the CdS-BZO₃-3 demonstrated the best results for photocatalytic hydrogen production, with a hydrogen production rate of 44.77 μmol/h under simulated sunlight irradiation, which is 4.4 and 2.9 times higher than that of BZO₃ and CdS, respectively. This paper provides a useful reference for further research on the construction of heterostructures for enhanced photocatalytic performance.

Barium chloride dihydrate (BaCl₂·2H₂O) and Zirconium oxychloride (ZrOCl₂·8H₂O) were provided by Aladdin Reagent Co., Ltd. (Shanghai, China). Cadmium chloride (CdCl₂), Ammonium chloride (NH₄Cl), Sodium sulfide nonahydrate (Na₂S·9H₂O), and Sodium sulfite (Na₂SO₃·xH₂O) were provided by Shanghai Sinopharm Chemical Reagent Co., Ltd. (Shanghai, China). Chloroplatinic acid (H₂PtC_l6), Thiourea (CN₂H₄S), and Ammonium hydroxide (NH₃·H₂O) were provided by Shanghai Macklin Biochemical Co., Ltd. (Shanghai, China). Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) and ethanol were provided by Tianjin Damao Chemical Reagent Co., Ltd. (Tianjin, China). Deionized water was provided by local sources. All the chemicals were used in their original state without undergoing any additional purification processes.

The calculated amounts of BaCl₂·2H₂O and ZrOCl₂·8H₂O were first dissolved in 20 mL of deionized water with magnetic stirring and heated until the solution became transparent. Subsequently, a solution of 15 M NaOH was gradually added to the transparent solution while vigorously stirring, leading to the formation of precipitated hydroxides. The resulting mixture was then enclosed in a Teflon-lined stainless-steel autoclave and subjected to a temperature of 180 °C for 12 h. Finally, the BZO₃ product was obtained after the resulting substances were washed with deionized water and ethanol multiple times and dried at 80 °C overnight.

Initially, 0.2 g of BZO₃ was dispersed in water using ultrasonic waves. Subsequently, 0.34 g of CdCl₂, 0.16 g of NH₄Cl, and 0.57 g of CS(NH₂)₂ were added to the mixture and vigorously stirred at room temperature for 2 h. Following this, NH₃·H₂O was gradually dropped to adjust the pH to 9 in the solution. After allowing for a certain period of additional reaction time, the resulting suspension was centrifuged, washed multiple times with water and ethanol, and dried at 60 °C under vacuum for 12 h. The final products with different weight ratios of CdS to BZO₃ (25%, 35%, 50%, and 75%) were named CdS-BZO₃-1, CdS-BZO₃-2, CdS-BZO₃-3, and CdS-BZO₃-4, respectively. As a comparison, pure CdS was also prepared using the same reaction conditions, except that no BZO₃ was added.

The crystal phase of the BZO₃, CdS, and CdS-BZO₃ was characterized using X-ray diffraction (XRD, Rigaku Corporation, Japan) with Cu Kα radiation (λ = 1.5418 Å), utilizing a Smartlab 9 kW instrument. The morphologies of the samples were determined by scanning electron microscopy (SEM, Regulus 8230, Hitachi, Japan) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM, JEM-2010, JEOL, Tokyo, Japan). X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS, Escalab 250Xi, Waltham, MA, USA) was employed to examine and analyze the chemical composition of the samples. The photoluminescence (PL) spectra and time-resolved photoluminescence spectra (TRPL) were recorded with FLUORMAX-4P (HORIBA JOBIN YUON, Palaiseau, France). The UV-vis diffuse reflectance spectra (DRS) were conducted by conducting measurements on a UV-visible spectrometer (Hitachi U-4100, Tokyo, Japan) within the wavelength range of 200–800 nm. To ensure accuracy, BaSO₄ was used as the background during the measurements. The electrochemistry workstation (CHI 660, CH Instrument, Bee Cave, TX, USA) was utilized to conduct photoelectrochemical measurements using a three-electrode system. In this system, the Pt electrode served as the counter electrode, while the Ag/AgCl electrode functioned as the reference electrode. The working electrode was prepared using 10 mg of the sample, 0.02 mL of Nafion, and 0.4 mL of ethanol to make a slurry. This slurry was then deposited onto glass substrates coated with FTO thin films. The tests were carried out at room temperature, using a 0.5 M Na₂SO₄ aqueous solution as an electrolyte.

The photocatalytic activities were performed by a photocatalytic reaction system (MC-SPB10, Beijing Merry Change Technology Co., Ltd., Beijing, China). The glass-reaction vessel was employed in the system to carry out the photocatalytic water-splitting reactions. In a standard experiment, 50 mg of each sample was dispersed in a 50-mL aqueous solution containing 0.1 M Na₂S and 0.05 M Na₂SO₃. The Na₂S/Na₂SO₃ combination served as a sacrificial agent. To ensure the removal of air, the system was evacuated for 10 min and purged with argon three times. The light source for the reactions was a 300 W Xe lamp (MC-PF300C, Beijing Merry Change Technology Co., Ltd., emitting in the 200–1100 nm wavelength range). The pictures and spectrum of the xenon lamp used in the experiment have been provided in the supporting information (Figure S1 and Figure S2, respectively). The hydrogen products were measured using online gas chromatography (GC-5190, Anhui Chromatography Co., Ltd., Hefei, China) with argon as the carrier gas.

The crystallinity and structure of BZO₃, CdS, and CdS-BZO₃ samples were analyzed using X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis. As shown in Figure 1, BZO₃ exhibits a highly crystalline pattern, with narrow and well-defined peaks between diffraction angles 10° and 80°. The XRD pattern obtained aligns perfectly with JCPDS standard No. 74-1299, which corresponds to the tetragonal perovskite-type cubic structure of BaZrO₃. On the other hand, CdS displayed weak diffraction peaks, which are well-indexed to hexagonal CdS (JCPDS No. 77-2306). For CdS-BZO₃-3 heterojunction, as can be seen, except for the peaks of BZO₃ and CdS, no extra peak was identified, which confirms the successful synthesis of CdS-BZO₃ heterostructures.

SEM was conducted to examine the morphologies of BZO₃, CdS, and CdS-BZO₃. As shown in Figure 2a,d, BZO₃ possesses a cubic structure, which can facilitate the electron-hole pairs generated during the process [33,34]. On the other hand, CdS shows the morphology of nanosheets, consistent with previous findings (Figure 2b,e) [35]. Figure 2c,f display the SEM images of the CdS-BZO₃ heterojunction. The attachment of CdS nanosheets onto the surface of BZO₃ is evident. The structure of the CdS-BZO₃ composite remains consistent with that of pure BZO and CdS, indicating that the composite primarily consists of BZO₃ and CdS. These findings are consistent with the XRD characterization results.

The morphology and microstructure of the CdS-BZO₃ heterojunction were further examined by transmission electron microscopy (TEM). The cubic structure of CdS-BZO₃ can be observed in Figure 3a, which matches the SEM observation. The high-resolution TEM (HRTEM) image of CdS-BZO₃ (Figure 3b) displays interplanar spacing of 0.29 nm and 0.33 nm, aligning to the (110) lattice plane for BZO₃ and the (002) lattice plane for CdS, respectively. The close contact between the phases of BZO₃ and CdS in the CdS-BZO₃ sample demonstrates the formation of a heterojunction between the two materials, which is advantageous for the separation of photogenerated electron-hole pairs to support the enhancement of photocatalytic performance. Furthermore, the energy-dispersive X-ray spectrometry (EDX) elemental maps show the distribution of Ba, Zr, O, Cd, and S elements in CdS-BZO₃ composites (Figure 3c–h), which demonstrates that the BZO₃ nano-cubes are successfully combined with CdS. In addition, the Pt co-catalyst photo-deposition sites can provide evidence of the successful preparation of the heterojunction. The high-resolution TEM image in Figure S3 shows that Pt nanoparticles are deposited on the surface of CdS, not on the surface of BZO₃. This further validates the successful preparation of the CdS-BZO₃ heterojunction, proves that CdS is the main photo-deposition site in the heterojunction, and also confirms the movement of photogenerated electrons from BZO₃ to CdS in the heterojunction.

The surface chemical compositions of BZO₃, CdS, and CdS-BZO₃ were validated using an X-ray photoelectron spectrometer (XPS). Figure 4 displays the high-resolution XPS spectra of Ba 3d, Zr 3d, O 1s, Cd 3d, and S 2p for the samples. As depicted in Figure 4a, the Ba 3d photoelectron peaks of CdS-BZO₃ are located at around 780.1 eV and 795.5 eV for the Ba 3d_3/2 and Ba 3d_5/2 lines, respectively. Compared to the Ba 3d peaks of pure BZO₃ (779.6 and 794.9 eV), these peaks are shifted to a higher binding-energy side, indicating a strong electronic coupling interaction between BZO₃ nano-cubes and CdS nanosheets [28]. Furthermore, the Zr 3d peaks of CdS-BZO₃ also show a shift towards higher binding energy compared to the pure BZO₃ peaks at 184.2 and 181.9 eV (Figure 4b). This shift of 0.4~0.5 eV is primarily due to the strong electronic coupling between BZO₃ and CdS. It is believed that electrons in BZO₃ transfer to CdS, which is beneficial for photocatalysis. The Cd 3p XPS spectrum of pure CdS (Figure 4c) displays peaks at 411.9 and 405.1 eV, which can correspond to Cd 3d_3/2 and Cd 3d_5/2, respectively. These peaks are characteristic of Cd²⁺ in CdS [36,37]. In Figure 4d, the S 2p spectrum of pure CdS shows peaks at 162.5 and 161.4 eV, corresponding to S 2p_1/2 and S 2p_3/2, respectively [36,37]. For the CdS-BZO₃ heterojunction as shown in Figure 4c,d, both the Cd 3p and S 2p spectra shift to higher binding energies compared to those for pure CdS, which reinforces the evidence of electron transfer from BZO₃ to CdS. The increase in electron density on CdS implies that more photogenerated electrons could be engaged in the hydrogen production reaction over the CdS-BZO₃ heterojunction under light irradiation.

The optical properties of the prepared samples were investigated using UV-vis diffuse-reflectance spectra (DRS). As shown in Figure 5a, the results indicate that CdS exhibits strong absorption in the visible region, with absorption edges at around 540 nm. Notably, CdS-BZO₃ exhibited a distinct shift where the absorption edges extended into the visible light region, unlike pure BZO₃. Due to the CdS being a direct semiconductor and BZO₃ being an indirect semiconductor, their band-gap could be estimated by determining the point of the tangents on the plots of (αhν)² versus photon-energy (hν) and (αhν)^1/2 versus photon-energy (hν), respectively [38,39]. Figure 5b displays that the estimated band-gap for CdS is approximately 2.4 eV, while BZO₃ has a band-gap of around 4.89 eV, which aligns with findings from previous research [29,38].

Mott-Schottky tests were performed to determine the conduction band (CB) potentials of CdS and BZO₃. As depicted in Figure 5c,d, both BZO₃ and CdS exhibited characteristics of n-type semiconductors, and their flat-band potentials (E_fb) are determined to be −1.49 V and −0.67 V versus Ag/AgCl, respectively. This was accomplished by extending the linear part of the Mott-Schottky plots to cross the longitudinal axis at zero [40]. The E_fb versus EAg/AgCl can be described with the normal hydrogen electrode (NHE) using the Nernst equation: E_NHE = E_Ag/AgCl + 0.197 V, where BZO₃ and CdS are respectively determined to be −1.29 and −0.47 V (vs. NHE). The E_fb of n-type semiconductors is closely associated with the conduction band (CB) and is approximately 0.1 V more positive than its conduction band potentials (E_CB) [41]. So, the E_CB of BZO₃ and CdS is approximately calculated to be around −1.39 and −0.57 V (vs. NHE). Additionally, according to the equation of E_g = E_VB − E_CB, the valence bands (VB) of BZO₃ and CdS were calculated to be 3.5 and 1.83 eV, respectively [42]. Consequently, as predicted, the formation of a Type I heterojunction between BZO₃ and CdS, a typical structure for electron and hole separation with staggered alignment, is possible.

The photoluminescence (PL) spectra of the samples were acquired to study the separation and transfer processes of the photogenerated charges in the materials. Figure 6a demonstrates that emission peaks in all the samples displayed are centered at approximately 503 nm. Pure CdS demonstrates a strong peak intensity in its photoluminescence, indicating that the recombination of photogenerated electron-hole pairs occurs easily. However, when CdS is combined with BZO₃, the photoluminescence peak intensity gradually diminishes. Notably, CdS/BZO₃-3 exhibits the lowest photoluminescence peak intensity, suggesting that its efficiency in separating electron-hole pairs is significantly enhanced, effectively suppressing the recombination of photogenerated electron-hole pairs. The time-resolved PL spectra of prepared samples are depicted in Figure 6b. In contrast to CdS and BZO₃, the CdS-BZO₃-3 heterojunction exhibits a slow decay characteristic. The calculated average lifetime of CdS-BZO₃-3 is 404 ps, which is 3 times longer than that of CdS and 7 times longer than that of BZO₃. These findings suggest that the CdS-BZO₃ heterojunctions promote electron transfer, effectively suppressing the recombination of photogenerated electron-hole pairs.

To further investigate the separation and migration of electron-hole pairs, photocurrent measurement of CdS, BZO₃, and CdS/BZO₃ was performed. As depicted in Figure 6c, when subjected to periodic circular light illumination with 20-s intervals, all the working electrodes exhibit a rapid rise in photocurrent density, reaching a stable state. However, upon turning off the light, the photocurrent experiences a substantial decrease. Interestingly, it is noted that the steady photocurrent density of the CdS-BZO₃-3 heterojunction is considerably higher compared to that of pure CdS and BZO₃. This observation suggests that the CdS-BZO₃ heterojunction effectively mitigates the recombination of photoexcited charges, leading to enhanced charge separation and a sustained photocurrent response. Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) was used to study the charge transfer process taking place at the interface between the photoelectrodes and the electrolyte. This was done by measuring Nyquist plots under illumination. Figure 6d presents Nyquist plots for pristine CdS, BZO₃, and the CdS-BZO₃-3 samples. CdS-BZO₃-3 shows a smaller semicircle plot compared to those of pristine CdS and BZO₃. This observation indicates a reduced resistance to charge migration across the interface between BZO₃ and CdS. Overall, the results of photoluminescence, photocurrent, and impedance measurements can be used to demonstrate the high photocatalytic performance of the CdS-BZO₃ heterojunctions.

The hydrogen production performance of BZO₃, CdS, and CdS-BZO₃ heterojunctions was determined by conducting a photocatalytic water-splitting test under full-spectrum illumination. As depicted in Figure 7a, pure BZO₃ and CdS show low photocatalytic hydrogen production performance, which could be because of the rapid recombination of electron-hole pairs. In contrast, the photocatalytic hydrogen production activity is significantly improved when coupling BZO₃ with CdS, reaching a maximum value of 44.77 μmol/h on the CdS-BZO₃-3 sample. In addition, as shown in Figure 7b, the photocatalytic rate of hydrogen production on CdS-BZO₃ samples gradually rises with increasing CdS content. Nevertheless, as the CdS content continues to increase, the rate of hydrogen production decreases, potentially attributable to the limited light-harvesting capacity of BZO₃ nano-cubes. To further investigate the visible-light-driven photocatalytic performance, the hydrogen production rates of BZO₃, CdS, and CdS-BZO₃ heterojunctions were evaluated under visible-light irradiation, as illustrated in Figure 7c. Pure BZO₃ exhibits no detectable hydrogen production activity due to its wide band gap, which restricts absorption in the visible-light region. In contrast, pure CdS shows a relatively high hydrogen production rate of 9.12 μmol/h under visible light. The CdS-BZO₃-3 heterojunction achieves a hydrogen production rate of 6.37 μmol/h, which is lower than that of pure CdS. This result suggests that under visible-light irradiation, the photocatalytic activity is mainly governed by CdS, while the incorporation of BZO₃ does not directly contribute to visible-light harvesting. Instead, the partial decrease in activity can be attributed to the reduced effective light absorption of CdS when coupled with BZO₃. Therefore, the advantage of introducing BZO₃ into CdS becomes more evident under full-spectrum illumination, where both components can synergistically participate in the photocatalytic process. To examine the reusable capabilities and long-term stability of the CdS-BZO₃ heterojunctions, four cycles of photocatalytic hydrogen production were conducted on the CdS-BZO₃-3 sample, and the findings are displayed in Figure 7d. The photocatalytic hydrogen production performance of CdS-BZO₃-3 did not significantly change after four test cycles, indicating its outstanding stability during long-term photocatalytic processes. In addition, to further evaluate the structural and chemical stability of the catalyst after the photocatalytic reaction, XPS, XRD, and UV–vis absorption analyses were performed on the used CdS-BZO₃-3 sample (Figure S4). The high-resolution XPS spectra (Figure S4a–d) reveal that the binding energies of Ba 3d, Zr 3d, Cd 3d, and S 2p remain essentially unchanged compared with the fresh sample, indicating the preservation of the chemical states of the constituent elements. The XRD pattern (Figure S4e) confirms that the crystalline phases of CdS and BZO₃ are well retained after photocatalysis, with no new impurity peaks detected, suggesting that the heterojunction structure remains intact. Moreover, the UV–vis absorption spectrum (Figure S4f) shows no obvious shift in the absorption edge, demonstrating that the optical properties of CdS-BZO₃-3 are maintained after the reaction. Taken together, the results from the cycling test and post-characterization confirm that the CdS-BZO₃ heterojunction not only exhibits high photocatalytic hydrogen evolution activity but also possesses excellent structural, chemical, and optical stability, making it a promising photocatalyst for long-term water-splitting applications.

Based on the comprehensive measurements mentioned above, the potential mechanism for photocatalytic water-splitting hydrogen production of the CdS-BZO₃ heterojunction is depicted in Figure 8. The initial energy band structure before contact was determined experimentally by ultraviolet photoelectron spectroscopy (UPS), as shown in Figure 8a. The secondary electron cutoff (SEC) and valence band (VB) spectra were used to calculate the work functions (Φ) and ionization potentials. The work function (Φ) of a material, given by Φ = hν − E_{cut off} (where hν = 21.22 eV for the He I source), was found to be 4.88 eV for BZO₃ and 5.16 eV for CdS. This key difference indicates that BZO₃ has a higher Fermi level (E_F) than CdS. Consequently, as Figure 8c illustrates, when the CdS-BZO₃ heterostructure forms, electrons spontaneously migrate from BZO₃ to CdS until their Fermi levels equilibrate. This electron transfer creates a positively charged interface region on the BZO₃ side, causing its band edge to bend upward and form an electron depletion layer. Conversely, the band edge of CdS bends downward due to the accumulation of electrons. This process results in the formation of a strong built-in electric field directed from BZO₃ to CdS at the interface. Subsequently, as shown in Figure 8d, when the CdS-BZO₃ heterojunction is exposed to light irradiation, both BZO₃ and CdS absorb photons and generate electron-hole pairs. Driven by the synergistic effects of the band edge bending, the built-in electric field, and Coulomb interaction, photogenerated electrons in the CB of BZO₃ readily transfer to recombine with the holes in the VB of CdS. This Z-scheme charge transfer mechanism effectively accumulates electrons in the CB of CdS, which possesses a sufficiently negative potential to reduce H⁺ to H₂. Simultaneously, the photogenerated holes from the valence band of BZO₃ transfer to the valence band of CdS, where they are consumed by the sacrificial agents (Na₂S/Na₂SO₃), thus preventing photocorrosion and completing the redox cycle. Consequently, the CdS-BZO₃ heterojunction, with its band alignment quantitatively established by UPS, exhibits a highly efficient Z-scheme charge transfer pathway. This mechanism significantly improves the separation and transport of photogenerated electron-hole pairs, leading to the dramatically enhanced photocatalytic water-splitting hydrogen production performance.

In summary, BZO₃ was initially prepared via the hydrothermal method, followed by the deposition of CdS on its surface through a simple chemical-bath deposition method to obtain a heterostructure composite. The resulting CdS-BZO₃ heterojunction demonstrates high performance in hydrogen production rate (44.77 μmol/h) without the addition of a noble-metal co-catalyst, a significant enhancement compared to pure BZO₃ (10.25 μmol/h) and CdS (15.2 μmol/h). The notable enhancement in the performance of the CdS-BZO₃ heterojunction could be due to its effective separation and transfer of photogenerated charge, the reduction of electron-hole pair recombination, and the maintenance of high reduction-oxidation ability. The experimental findings suggest a potential water-splitting photocatalytic hydrogen production mechanism of the CdS-BZO₃ heterojunction under simulated sunlight illumination. This work provides a strong reference for heterostructure construction and further improvements in perovskite-based photocatalysts.

The following supporting information can be found at: https://www.sciepublish.com/article/pii/707, Figure S1: The xenon lamp light source system. Figure S2: The spectrum of the xenon lamp light source system. Figure S3: High-resolution TEM image of CdS-BZO₃-3 sample after photochemical deposition of Pt. Figure S4. High-resolution XPS spectrum for (a) Ba 3d; (b) Zr 3d; (c) Cd 3d; (d) S 2p, (e) XRD patterns, and (f) UV–vis absorption spectra of used CdS-BZO₃-3 heterojunction.

Conceptualization, S.S.A.S. and S.S.; Methodology, S.S.A.S., M.C. and J.Z.; Software, S.S.A.S.; Validation, M.C., P.W. and Y.C.; Formal Analysis, S.S.A.S. and T.D.; Investigation, M.C.; Resources, S.S.A.S. and M.C.; Data Curation, S.S.A.S.; Writing—Original Draft Preparation, S.S.A.S.; Writing—Review & Editing, S.S.A.S. and M.C.; Visualization, M.C.; Supervision, S.S.; Project Administration, S.S.; Funding Acquisition, S.S.

Not applicable.

Not applicable.

The data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.

This work is supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (22308001, 21902001, and 22179001), Higher Education Natural Science Foundation of Anhui Province (KJ2021A0029 and KJ2021A0027), Distinguished Young Research Project of Anhui Higher Education Institution (022AH020007), The University Synergy Innovation Program of Anhui Province (GXXT-2023-009).

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.