Women may assume a growing share of agricultural work without gaining corresponding control over resources or decisions. This study examines gendered working-hour patterns and perceived drivers of agricultural feminization in Cooch Behar district, West Bengal. An exploratory, ex-post facto investigation covered 100 farm women, with 25 respondents from each of four purposively selected villages in Cooch Behar-II and Dinhata-II blocks. Structured interviews provided information on agricultural working hours for 2022–2023, 2023–2024, and 2024–2025, household male migration and occupational categories, daily wage rates, and agreement with nine proposed drivers. Descriptive statistics, mean-score rankings, and exploratory principal component analysis were used. Reported average annual working hours increased for women from 1668.80 to 1736.50 h, a rise of 4.06%, while men’s hours declined from 1503.20 to 1328.10 h, a decrease of 11.65%. Women reported more hours than men in all three years, and the annual gender gap widened from 165.60 to 408.40 h. The number of households classified as experiencing male out-migration rose from 37 to 49. Male migration received the highest perceived-driver score (4.45 out of 5), followed by poverty (4.29) and declining agricultural profitability (4.11). The reported component structure suggested socio-economic, capacity-related, gendered labour and technological dimensions. These patterns are consistent with an increasing concentration of agricultural labour among women, but do not establish causal effects or demonstrate empowerment. The purposive sample and the exploratory measures limit generalization. The findings motivate attention to women’s workload, remuneration, access to agricultural services, and recognition as farmers.
Minimizing energy inputs and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions is essential for achieving sustainable crop production. This study analyzed changes in energy use and GHG emissions associated with chemical fertilizer application in crop production in the middle reach of the Yangtze River from 2014 (one year before the implementation of zero-growth actions) to 2022. Results revealed significant reductions in both total energy inputs and energy inputs per unit area from chemical fertilizers, with annual declines of 10.72 PJ and 0.48 GJ·ha−1, respectively. The energy use efficiency of chemical fertilizer application increased significantly at an annual rate of 0.40. Concurrently, total GHG emissions, emissions per unit area, and emissions per unit of energy input associated with chemical fertilizer application decreased significantly, with respective annual reductions of 0.31 × 107 kg, 14.08 kg·ha−1, and 0.26 kg·GJ−1. These reductions were primarily due to decreases in inputs of straight nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and potassium (K) fertilizers, rather than changes in compound fertilizers, as the input of compound fertilizers saw a significant increase. This study suggests that zero-growth actions, with the substitution of compound fertilizers for straight N, P, and K fertilizers as a key approach, are associated with lower energy inputs and GHG emissions from chemical fertilizer application in the middle reach of the Yangtze River. However, given the descriptive nature of this analysis, these findings should be interpreted as correlational, and further quasi-experimental studies are warranted to confirm causality.
