1.
Hedemann-Robinson M. Enforcement of EU Environmental Law: Taking Stock of the Evolving Union Legal Framework.
Eur. Energy Env. Law Rev. 2015,
24, 115–129. [
Google Scholar]
2.
Blanc F, Coletti P, Gemmell C, Bertone C. Environmental Law. In Research Handbook on the Enforcement of EU Law; Scholten M, Ed.; Edward Elgar Publishing: Cheltenham, UK, 2023; pp. 315–333.
3.
Lenaerts K, Gutiérrez-Fons A-J. The General System of EU Environmental Law Enforcement.
Yearbook Eur. Law 2011,
30, 3–41. [
Google Scholar]
5.
Smith M. Enforcing Environmental Law through Infringement and Sanctioning: Steering not Rowing. In Research Handbook on EU Environmental Law; Peeters, M., Eliantonio, M., Eds.; Edward Elgar Publishing: Cheltenham, UK, 2020; pp. 213–229.
7.
Giannakourou G. The implementation of EU environmental policy in Greece—Europeanisation and mechanisms of change. In Greece in the European Union; Dimitrakopoulos, G.D., Passas, G.A., Eds.; Taylor and Francis Group: New York, NY, USA, 2004; pp. 51–60.
8.
Grier M. The Role of the Court in Protecting the Environment—A Jurisprudential Analysis.
S. Carol. Law Rev. 1971,
23, 93–113. [
Google Scholar]
9.
Markowitz JK, Gerardu JAJ. The importance of the Judiciary in Environmental Compliance and Enforcement.
Pace Environ. Law Rev. 2012,
29, 543–544. [
Google Scholar]
10.
Core Writing Team. Summary for Policymakers. In Climate Change 2023: Synthesis Report. Contribution of Working Groups I, II and III to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change; Lee, H., Romero, J., Eds.; IPCC: Geneva, Switzerland, 2023; pp. 1–42.
11.
Directive 2009/147/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 30 November 2009 on the conservation of wild birds (2009) Official Journal L20, pp. 7–25.
12.
European Council Directive 92/43/EEC of 21 May 1992 on the conservation of natural habitats and of wild fauna and flora (1992) Official Journal L206, pp. 7–50.
13.
Commission of the European Communities v. Hellenic Republic Case no. C-103/00, ECLI:EU:C:2002:60.
14.
Presidential Decree. Classification of the land and sea areas of Laganas Bay and the Strophades Islands as a National Marine Park and classification of the land area of the municipality of Zakynthos (former municipality of Zakynthos and the communities of Vasilikos) as a regional zone of the National Marine Park, Ampelokipon and Argassio) and the municipality of Laganas (former municipalities of Kalamaki, Mouzaki, Keriou, Pantokratoras and Lithakia) of the prefecture of Zakynthos”, Government Gazette, 1999. D’ 906/22.12.1999.
15.
European Commission v. Hellenic Republic, 2014, Case no. C-600/12, ECLI:EU:C:2014:2086.
16.
European Commission v. Hellenic Republic, 2016, Case no. C-504/14, ECLI:EU:C:2016:847.
17.
The area of Kyparissia was designated as a Special Area of Conservation (SAC) under the Habitats Directive by Law 3937/2011 (Government Gazette Α’ 60/31.3.2011) in Greece.
18.
The Court decided that the Hellenic Republic had failed to fulfil its obligations under Article 6(2) and (3) and Article 12(1)(b) and (d) of the Habitats Directive.
20.
Ministerial Decision 25794/20-5-2016 (Government Gazette D’ 141/24.5.2016). Its duration was extended for another year, i.e., until 24 May 2019 (Ministerial Decision 30121/1277/23.5.2018, Government Gazette D΄204).
21.
Presidential Decree. 2018 Characterization of the Kyparissiakos Gulf and its wider area as an “Area of Nature Protection”, definition of protection zones, determination of uses and building conditions and restrictions, Government Gazette D’ 391/03.10.2018. 2018.
22.
Council of State (2021) Judgements no. 164-170/2021.
23.
Government Gazette Α’25/20.02.2018.
24.
Government Gazette Α’92/7.05.2020.
25.
European Commission, Decision of 19 July 2006 adopting, pursuant to Council Directive 92/43/EEC, the list of sites of Community importance for the Mediterranean biogeographical region (2006) Official Journal L259, pp. 1–104.
27.
European Commission v. Hellenic Republic (2020), Case no. 849/19, ECLI:EU:C:2020:1047.
28.
Ministerial Decision 24776/985. “Determination of conservation objectives for natural habitat types of Annex I and species of Annex II of Directive 92/43/EEC in Special Areas of Conservation and Sites of Community Importance of the national ecological network NATURA 2000”, (Government Gazette B’ 1807).
29.
Ministerial Decision 50146/1786 “Determination and approval of conservation objectives for bird species of par. 1 and 2 of Article 4 of Directive 2009/147/EC in the Special Protection Areas (SPAs) of the national ecological network NATURA 2000” (Government Gazette B’ 3118).
31.
Council of State (indicative) Judgements no. 416-7/2018, 1358/2018, 2574-5/2018, 741/2019, 1007-8/2019, 1343/2019, 1408-9/2019.
32.
Council of State Judgements no. 2365–2366/2022.
33.
The World Health Organization has identified polluted air as the greatest environmental threat to human health based on its remarkable contribution to the worsening of disease, leading to increased morbidity and mortality, as referred in WHO (2021) WHO global air quality guidelines particulate matter (PM2.5 and PM10), ozone, nitrogen dioxide, sulfur dioxide and carbon monoxide, Guideline, p. 2. Available online:
https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/345329/9789240034228-eng.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y (accessed on 29 September 2023).
34.
This is a set of surveys that take place regularly on behalf of the European Commission and concern public opinion on a wide range of topical issues relevant to EU Member States. For more information, see European Commission, Eurobarometer. Available online:
https://europa.eu/eurobarometer/screen/home (accessed on 29 September 2023).
35.
This deterioration, moreover, can be easily seen by everyone, since the scientific measurements can be freely accessed at the same time through the website of the European Environment Agency of the EU. European Environment Agency of the EU (2023) European Air Quality Index. Available online:
https://airindex.eea.europa.eu/Map/AQI/Viewer/ (accessed on 29 September 2023).
38.
This pillar consists of the Framework Directive 2008/50/EC on ambient air quality and cleaner air for Europe and the Directive 2004/107/EC on arsenic, cadmium, mercury, nickel and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in ambient air. The latter is the only one remaining in force from the “package” of four Directives that complemented the general framework of the “predecesso” Framework Directive 2008/50. For more information on this, see Academy of European Law (ERA), Co-operation with National Judges in the Field of Environmental Law Under the European Commission Framework Contract ENV.A.I./FRA/2012/0018 - Training Module: How to Handle Court Proceedings Invoking Non-Compliance with EU Air Quality and Noise Legislation, in Training materials: Speakers’ contributions, Air Quality and Noise Legislation, p. 4. Available online:
http://www.era-comm.eu/Cooperation_national_judges_environmental_law/module_4/02.pdf (accessed on 29 September 2023).
39.
In this pillar belongs the Directive 2016/2284, on the reduction of national emissions of certain atmospheric pollutants, amending Directive 2003/35/EC and repealing Directive 2001/81/EC.
40.
Tsoukala A. Air pollution in EU law, in the light of the conviction of Greece in cases C-633/21 and C-70/21.
Environ. Law Rev. 2023,
2, 225–234. [
Google Scholar]
41.
Such as the Directive 2010/75/EU on industrial emissions (integrated pollution prevention and control), the Regulation 715/2007 on type-approval of motor vehicles with respect to emissions from light passenger and commercial vehicles (Euro 5 and Euro 6) and on access to vehicle repair and maintenance information, and the Directive 2016/802/EU on the reduction of the sulphur content of certain liquid fuels.
42.
Commission v Greece (2023) Case no. C-633/21, ECLI:EU:C:2023:112.
43.
Commission v Greece (2023) Case no. C-70/21, ECLI:EU:C:2023:237.
47.
Directive 2008/98/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 19 November 2008 on waste and repealing certain Directives, Official Journal L312, pp. 3–30. Simultaneously, there are specific pieces of EU legislation dedicated to certain waste streams, featuring provisions tailored to the nature, specific characteristics, and management requirements of each waste category (e.g., Directives 2006/66, 94/62, 2000/53 and 2012/19) and different legislative instruments that regulate diverse activities, contingent on the nature of the waste management operation in question (Directive 2010/75 on industrial emissions, 1999/31 on the landfill of waste, 2006/21 on the management of waste from extractive activities and Regulation 1257/2013 on ship recycling.
48.
Regulation (EC) No 1013/2006 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 14 June 2006 on shipments of waste. Official Journal L190, pp. 1–98.
50.
To enhance this transition, the Circular Economy Action Plan (2015) set specific objectives and targets to improve waste management, promote innovation in recycling and other forms of waste recovery, and limit landfill, leading to amendments in the Waste Framework Directive by Directive 2018/85. The new Circular Economy Action Plan adopted in 2020 as part of the European Green Deal of 2019, represents the updated agenda of the EU’s sustainable development policy. It incorporates the latest scientific developments and establishes new goals based on them.
51.
Commission of the European Communities v. Hellenic Republic (1992) Case no. C-45/91, European Court Reports, I, 02509.
52.
Commission of the European Communities v. Hellenic Republic (2000) Case no. C-387/97, European Court Reports, I, 05047, para. 70.
53.
Commission of the European Communities v. Hellenic Republic (2004) Case no. C-119/02, ECLI:EU:C:2004:385.
54.
European Commission v. Hellenic Republic (2018) Case no. C-328/16, ECLI:EU:C:2018:98.
55.
Commission of the European Communities v. Hellenic Republic (2005) Case no. C-502/03, ECLI:EU:C:2005:592.
56.
European Commission v. Hellenic Republic (2014) Case no. C-378/13, ECLI:EU:C:2014:2405.
57.
European Commission v. Hellenic Republic (2014) Case no. C-600/12, ECLI:EU:C:2014:2086.
58.
European Commission v. Hellenic Republic (2014) Case no. C-677/13, ECLI:EU:C:2014:2433.
59.
European Commission v. Hellenic Republic (2017) Case no. C-202/16, ECLI:EU:C:2017:318.
60.
Commission of the European Communities v. Hellenic Republic (2007) Case no. C-440/06, European Court Reports, I-00145.
61.
European Commission v. Hellenic Republic (2015) Case no. C-167/14, ECLI:EU:C:2015:684.
62.
This was the case in C-202/16, as referred above at reference no. 60.
63.
European Commission v. Hellenic Republic (2013) Case no. C-517/11, ECLI:EU:C:2013:66.
64.
European Council Directive 91/271/EEC of 21 May 1991 concerning urban waste-water treatment, Official Journal L135, pp. 40–52.
65.
Commission of the European Communities v. Hellenic Republic (2009) Case no. C-286/08. European Court Reports, I-00142.
66.
European Commission v. Hellenic Republic (2016) Case no. C-584/14, ECLI:EU:C:2016:636.
67.
Council of State, Judgements no. 4626/2013, 4940/2013, 961/2015, 1394/2015, 1815/2016, 3273/2017, among others.
68.
Council of State, Judgment no. 46/2018.
69.
Council of State, Judgment no. 1986/2013.
70.
Council of State, Judgments no. 2405/2016, 963/2019.
71.
Council of State, Judgments no. 3975/2010, 1133/2018.
72.
Directive 2008/98/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 19 November 2008 on waste and repealing certain Directives, Official Journal L312, pp. 3–30.
73.
Directive 94/62/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 20 December 1994 on packaging and packaging waste, Official Journal L365, pp. 10–23.
74.
European Communication (2015) Closing the loop—An EU action plan for the Circular Economy, Brussels, COM (2015) 614 final.
75.
Pouikli K, Tsoukala A. For further information on this piece of Greek legislation. The new law 4819/2021 on waste management in the light of the requirements of the European legislation on waste and especially the circular economy.
Efarm. Dimosiou Dikaiou 2021,
2, 230–241. [
Google Scholar]
76.
Regulatory Authority for Energy, Waste, and Water. Available online:
https://www.rae.gr/en/ (accessed on 29 November 2023).
77.
The National Waste Management Plan with duration 2020–2030 was firstly adopted with a Ministerial Council’s Act (Government Gazette A΄185/2020) and then amended by another similar act (Government Gazette A΄94/2023).
79.
Among others, the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships and its Protocols (MARPOL, 1973, See Protocol Relating to the 1973 International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships, (1978). United Nations Treaty Series, 1340 (p. 61), 1341 (p. 3). Available online: https://treaties.un.org/Pages/showDetails.aspx?objid=0800000280291139&clang=_en (accessed on 15 November 2023).
81.
Directive 2006/118/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 12 December 2006 on the protection of groundwater against pollution and deterioration, Official Journal L372, pp. 19–31.
82.
Directive 2006/7/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 15 February 2006 concerning the management of bathing water quality and repealing Directive 76/160/EEC, Official Journal L64, pp. 37–51.
83.
European Commission, Directorate-General for Environment (2021). Assessment of Member States’ progress in Programmes of Measures during the second planning cycle of the Water Framework Directive—Member State—Greece, Publications Office of the European Union. Available online: https://data.europa.eu/doi/10.2779/662857 (accessed on 15 November 2023), p. 27.
84.
Government Gazette Α΄ 280/9.12.2003.
85.
Government Gazette Α’ 54/08.03.2007.
86.
European Commission, Directorate-General for Environment (2021). Assessment of Member States’ progress in Programmes of Measures during the second planning cycle of the Water Framework Directive—Member State—Greece, Publications Office of the European Union. Available online:
https://data.europa.eu/doi/10.2779/662857 (accessed on 15 November 2023).
87.
It should be noted that the river basins and water divisions of the country have been defined by the 706/16.07.10 decision of the National Water Commission, the competent central body for the formulation of the national water policy (Government Gazette B’ 1383/02.09.2010).
88.
European Commission v. Hellenic Republic (2012), Case no. C-297/2011, ECLI:EU:C:2012:228.
89.
See, for example, the Plan for Epirus at Government Gazette, B’ 2292/13.09.2013.
90.
See, for example, the Plan for Western Peloponnese at Government Gazette, B’ 4678/29.12.2017.
92.
For example, see the Flood Risk Management Plan of the Attica Water Department (EL 06) at Government Gazette B’ 2693/6.07.2018.
93.
Directive 2007/60/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 23 October 2007 on the assessment and management of flood risks, Official Journal L288, pp. 27–34. See European Commission. (2022). September infringements package: key decisions. Available online:
https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/inf_22_5402 (accessed on 28 November 2023).
95.
Skoulikidis NT, Karaouzas I, Amaxidis Y. Lazaridou M. Impact of EU Environmental Policy Implementation on the Quality and Status of Greek Rivers.
Water 2021,
13, 1858. [
Google Scholar]
96.
Report on the implementation of the Water Framework Directive River Basin Management Plans Member State: Greece Accompanying the Document Communication from the European Commission to the European Parliament and the Council,
The Water Framework Directive and the Floods Directive: Actions towards the ‘good status’ of EU water and to reduce flood risks. Available online:
https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/HTML/?uri=CELEX:52015SC0054 (accessed on 8 February 2024).
97.
Council of State, Judgements no. 2759–2760/1994.
98.
Council of State, Judgement no. 3478/2000.
99.
Council of State, Judgement no. 1688/2005.
100.
Kalatzakos S. River Rights and the Rights of Rivers: The Case of Acheloos. In Can Nature Have Rights? Legal and Political Insights; Rachel Carson Center for Environment and Society: Munich, Germany, 2017; pp. 45–51.
101.
Judgement of the Court of 11 September 2012, reference for a preliminary ruling, Case no. C-43/10, ECLI:EU:C:2012:560.
103.
Linos A, Petralias A, Christophi CA, Christophoridou E, Kouroutou P, Stoltidis M. et al. Oral ingestion of hexavalent chromium through drinking water and cancer mortality in an industrial area of Greece—An ecological study.
Environ. Health 2011,
10, 1–8. [
Google Scholar]
104.
Council of State, Judgement no. 1543/2008.
105.
Council of State, Judgements no. 3974–3978/2010.
106.
Resolution CM/ResChS(2013)15, Collective Complaint No. 72/2011, International Federation for Human Rights (FIDH) v. Greece, adopted by the Committee of Ministers on 16 October 2013 at the 1181st meeting of the Ministers’ Deputies, available online:
https://hudoc.esc.coe.int/eng/?i=reschs-2013-15-en (accessed on 9 February 2024).
107.
Council of State, Judgements no. 662/2012, 975–976/2015, 3943/2015.
109.
Macrory R. Sanctions and Safeguards: The Brave New World of Regulatory Enforcement.
Curr. Legal Probl. 2013,
66, 233–266. [
Google Scholar]
110.
Jack B. Enforcing Member State Compliance with EU Environmental Law: A Critical Evaluation of the Use of Financial Penalties.
J. Environ. Law 2011,
23, 83–91. [
Google Scholar]